: For animals used in science, the USDA promotes Replacement (using non-animal methods), Reduction (using fewer animals), and Refinement (minimizing pain) [29].

A pig will avoid electric shocks. A rat will show empathy for a trapped cagemate. A cow forms best friends and becomes stressed when separated. A chimpanzee can grieve. This is not anthropomorphism; it is neurobiology. Because animals can experience pain, pleasure, fear, and loneliness, they exist within the sphere of moral concern.